Yuval Noah Harari Discusses the Future of Homo Sapiens

I’m delighted to welcome you to what promises to be an enlightening and thought-provoking conversation. Today, we’re diving deep into the heart of human history and exploring the future of our species through the lens of Yuval Noah Harari’s remarkable book Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. This book has captivated millions around the world by unraveling the story of Homo sapiens - from our humble beginnings as small bands of hunter-gatherers to becoming the dominant force on the planet.

In this conversation, we’ll explore the pivotal revolutions that have shaped our journey - the Cognitive Revolution that gave rise to language and imagination, the Agricultural Revolution that transformed our societies, the Scientific Revolution that reshaped our understanding of the world, and the modern technological era that’s pushing the boundaries of what it means to be human. Joining us are some of the most brilliant minds of our time, who will help us unpack these complex themes and consider the ethical challenges we face as we move into an uncertain future.

Though this conversation is imaginary, the questions we’ll tackle are very real and deeply relevant to our lives today. So, sit back, open your minds, and let’s embark on this fascinating exploration of what it means to be human - and where we might be headed next.

The Cognitive Revolution: Origins of Human Imagination and Language

Nick Sasaki (Moderator): Welcome, everyone, to this exciting imaginary conversation. Today, we’re diving into the profound themes of Yuval Noah Harari's Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, starting with the Cognitive Revolution. Yuval, could you set the stage for us by explaining what the Cognitive Revolution is and why it’s a pivotal moment in the history of Homo sapiens?

Yuval Noah Harari: Thank you, Nick. The Cognitive Revolution, which occurred around 70,000 years ago, marks the point when Homo sapiens developed the capacity for complex thought and communication. This was not just about language, but about the ability to create and share intricate concepts, myths, and social structures. It allowed our ancestors to cooperate in large groups, beyond immediate family or tribal bonds, by believing in shared fictions—things like tribal spirits, nations, or human rights—that don’t exist in the physical world but have immense power in shaping societies.

Nick Sasaki: Jared, as someone who has extensively explored the factors influencing human societies, how do you see the impact of the Cognitive Revolution on the trajectory of Homo sapiens compared to other species?

Jared Diamond: The Cognitive Revolution was indeed a game changer, Nick. Before this revolution, humans were just another species of large mammals, albeit ones with rudimentary tool use. But the ability to communicate complex ideas gave Homo sapiens an extraordinary advantage. This allowed for planning, strategizing in groups, and ultimately outcompeting other species. What’s remarkable is how this ability to believe in shared myths, as Yuval mentioned, allowed for the creation of complex social structures—everything from laws to religions to economies. It was the foundation upon which all later human achievements were built.

Nick Sasaki: David, your work in Big History emphasizes the broad patterns of history across all of time. How does the Cognitive Revolution fit into this larger narrative?

David Christian: The Cognitive Revolution is a pivotal chapter in the story of life on Earth, and in the broader context of Big History, it represents a fundamental threshold. Before this, life was largely driven by biological evolution—changes were slow and gradual. But the Cognitive Revolution introduced cultural evolution, which operates on a much faster scale. Suddenly, ideas could spread across continents within generations, rather than millennia. It’s fascinating how this revolution laid the groundwork for rapid advancements, leading to the rise of agriculture, cities, and eventually modern civilization.

Nick Sasaki: Steven, you’ve written extensively about the nature of language and its role in human development. How do you see language evolving during the Cognitive Revolution, and what impact did it have?

Steven Pinker: The emergence of complex language was indeed central to the Cognitive Revolution. Language allowed our ancestors to share knowledge and coordinate in ways that were impossible for other species. With language, humans could plan hunts, settle disputes, and convey stories that contained moral and social norms. It also enabled the transfer of knowledge across generations, which meant that each generation could build on the knowledge of the previous ones. This cumulative cultural evolution is what really set Homo sapiens apart and allowed for the development of sophisticated technologies and societies.

Nick Sasaki: Elizabeth, your work touches on humanity’s impact on the environment. How do you see the Cognitive Revolution influencing early human interactions with the environment?

Elizabeth Kolbert: The Cognitive Revolution was the beginning of humans exerting significant control over their environment. With the ability to organize in large groups and use language to plan and execute complex tasks, humans began to alter ecosystems in ways that no other species had. Early on, this might have involved hunting large animals to extinction or manipulating fire to clear land. These actions, driven by the newfound cognitive abilities of Homo sapiens, set the stage for the more dramatic environmental changes that came with the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions.

Nick Sasaki: Margaret, as a writer and cultural commentator, how do you interpret the role of myths and storytelling that emerged from the Cognitive Revolution?

Margaret Atwood: Myths and storytelling are the lifeblood of human culture. They were the original technology of the mind, allowing humans to pass on not just survival knowledge, but also values, norms, and a sense of identity. These stories create shared realities that bind people together and give them a framework within which to live their lives. What’s fascinating is how these early stories have evolved but still serve the same fundamental purpose—they help us navigate the world, understand our place in it, and connect with others.

Nick Sasaki: Thank you all for your insightful contributions. The Cognitive Revolution truly represents a transformative chapter in human history, laying the foundation for all that was to come. Let’s take this conversation further as we explore the next key theme from Sapiens in our upcoming discussion.

The Agricultural Revolution: Shaping Human Societies

Nick Sasaki: Welcome back, everyone. Moving forward in our discussion on Yuval Noah Harari's Sapiens, let's now focus on the Agricultural Revolution. Yuval, could you start by explaining the significance of this revolution and how it transformed human societies?

Yuval Noah Harari: Of course, Nick. The Agricultural Revolution, which began around 12,000 years ago, was a fundamental turning point in human history. It marked the shift from foraging to farming, where humans started to cultivate plants and domesticate animals. This change allowed for the creation of surplus food, which in turn supported larger populations and the development of settled communities. However, it also led to a more hierarchical society, with significant social, political, and economic implications. This revolution didn't just change how humans lived day-to-day—it also altered the entire structure of human societies.

Nick Sasaki: Jared, given your research into the development of human societies, how do you view the consequences of the Agricultural Revolution? Was it a net positive or negative for humankind?

Jared Diamond: That’s a complex question, Nick. On the one hand, the Agricultural Revolution enabled the rise of civilizations, writing, and complex political structures—what many consider the hallmarks of human progress. However, it also came with significant downsides. The switch to agriculture often resulted in poorer nutrition, greater susceptibility to disease, and more rigid social hierarchies compared to hunter-gatherer societies. Harari even refers to it as "history’s biggest fraud" because while it promised more food and stability, it led to a host of new problems, including inequality, overwork, and environmental degradation.

Nick Sasaki: David, how does the Agricultural Revolution fit into the grand narrative of Big History? What makes this transition so pivotal?

David Christian: The Agricultural Revolution is a prime example of a threshold moment in Big History—a point where the conditions for life on Earth changed fundamentally. Agriculture allowed for the accumulation of surplus resources, which is essential for the development of complexity in human societies. It enabled the growth of cities, the rise of state-level organizations, and the development of new technologies. But it also led to greater human impact on the environment, setting the stage for the Anthropocene, the current geological age defined by significant human influence on the planet. It’s a classic example of how a single innovation can ripple through history, affecting everything from social structures to ecological systems.

Nick Sasaki: Steven, the development of agriculture seems like a technological leap, but it also had profound cultural implications. How did this revolution affect human cognition and culture?

Steven Pinker: The Agricultural Revolution fundamentally altered human culture by changing the way people thought about time, resources, and social organization. Agriculture introduced the concept of property and ownership, leading to more complex social hierarchies and economic systems. It also required humans to develop new ways of thinking about the future—planning for harvests, storing surplus, and defending property. This shift from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one required new cognitive skills and cultural practices, including record-keeping and formal education. In many ways, the cultural and cognitive demands of agriculture laid the groundwork for further technological and social innovations.

Nick Sasaki: Elizabeth, you’ve explored humanity’s environmental impact. How did the Agricultural Revolution begin altering the relationship between humans and the natural world?

Elizabeth Kolbert: The Agricultural Revolution was the first time humans began to exert large-scale control over nature, which had profound environmental consequences. By domesticating plants and animals, humans started to reshape entire ecosystems to suit their needs, leading to deforestation, soil depletion, and the loss of biodiversity. This marked the beginning of a long trend of environmental manipulation that has only accelerated with subsequent technological advances. The changes initiated by the Agricultural Revolution also set the stage for the environmental challenges we face today, as humans continue to modify the planet at an unprecedented scale.

Nick Sasaki: Margaret, the Agricultural Revolution brought about new forms of storytelling and myths as humans settled into agricultural societies. How did this transition influence cultural narratives?

Margaret Atwood: The move to agriculture created a new kind of narrative—one that reflected the settled, cyclical nature of farming life. Stories became more focused on themes of stability, fertility, and the rhythms of the natural world. Myths and religious practices often centered around agricultural cycles, with gods of harvest, fertility, and the earth. These narratives helped to reinforce the social structures and values necessary for agricultural societies to function. The stories also served to justify and normalize the social hierarchies and inequalities that emerged with settled life, embedding these concepts deeply into human culture.

Nick Sasaki: Thank you all for your thought-provoking insights. The Agricultural Revolution was indeed a transformative period that reshaped not just the way humans lived but also how they interacted with each other and the environment. In our next session, we’ll delve into the role of myths and shared beliefs in unifying humankind. I look forward to continuing this rich discussion with you all.

The Role of Myths and Shared Beliefs in Unifying Humankind

Nick Sasaki: Welcome back, everyone. In this session, we’re going to explore the role of myths and shared beliefs in unifying humankind, as discussed in Yuval Noah Harari’s Sapiens. Yuval, could you start by explaining how myths and shared beliefs have played a crucial role in human history?

Yuval Noah Harari: Certainly, Nick. Myths and shared beliefs are foundational to the way human societies have been organized. From the Cognitive Revolution onward, Homo sapiens have been unique in their ability to create and believe in shared fictions—things like religions, nations, and economic systems. These shared beliefs allowed large numbers of strangers to cooperate effectively. For example, the belief in money, which has no intrinsic value, enables complex economic transactions across the world. Similarly, religions and ideologies bind millions of people together under a common set of values and norms. Without these unifying myths, large-scale human cooperation would be impossible.

Nick Sasaki: Jared, given your extensive work on the evolution of societies, how do you view the importance of shared myths in enabling human cooperation on a large scale?

Jared Diamond: Shared myths have been absolutely essential in the development of complex societies. They create a sense of identity and belonging that goes beyond the individual or small group. Whether it’s the belief in a divine ruler, the sanctity of a legal code, or the narrative of a nation’s founding, these myths provide the glue that holds societies together. They allow for the creation of laws, moral codes, and social hierarchies that are accepted by large groups of people. This is particularly important as societies grow larger and more complex, where direct personal relationships are no longer enough to maintain social order.

Nick Sasaki: David, in the context of Big History, how do shared beliefs and myths function as a driving force in the evolution of human societies?

David Christian: From a Big History perspective, myths and shared beliefs are powerful drivers of collective learning and social cohesion. They act as frameworks within which people can share knowledge, coordinate actions, and pursue common goals. These shared narratives have enabled humans to build vast networks of cooperation, which in turn has accelerated technological and cultural evolution. Myths about gods, kings, or the nation provide a common language that allows people to communicate across generations and geographies. This ability to unify large groups of people around shared ideas is one of the key factors that has enabled Homo sapiens to dominate the planet.

Nick Sasaki: Steven, as someone who has studied the psychology of language and cognition, how do you see the role of language in the creation and perpetuation of these unifying myths?

Steven Pinker: Language is the tool that makes these shared myths possible. It allows us to convey complex ideas, tell stories, and create symbols that can be passed down through generations. Through language, humans can create abstract concepts like justice, freedom, or the divine, which become the foundations of cultures and societies. What’s particularly interesting is how these myths, while not "true" in a literal sense, are believed and acted upon as if they were real. This collective belief in shared fictions is a uniquely human phenomenon, and it has been instrumental in creating the complex social structures that characterize human civilization.

Nick Sasaki: Elizabeth, you’ve written about the impact of human activities on the environment. How do myths and shared beliefs shape humanity’s relationship with nature?

Elizabeth Kolbert: Myths and shared beliefs have had a profound impact on how humans interact with the natural world. Many ancient myths personified elements of nature, turning rivers, forests, and animals into deities or spirits, which often led to a more respectful relationship with the environment. However, as societies industrialized, new myths emerged—such as the belief in human dominion over nature—that justified exploitation of natural resources. These modern myths, while fueling technological and economic growth, have also contributed to environmental degradation. Understanding the power of these beliefs is crucial if we are to address the environmental challenges we face today.

Nick Sasaki: Margaret, myths and storytelling are central to human culture. How do you see their role in shaping societies and influencing human behavior?

Margaret Atwood: Myths and stories are the frameworks through which we make sense of the world. They shape our values, our understanding of right and wrong, and our perceptions of reality. Whether it’s a creation myth explaining our origins or a modern narrative about progress and technology, these stories guide our actions and decisions. They can inspire people to achieve great things, but they can also be used to justify harmful behaviors or inequalities. The power of storytelling lies in its ability to resonate emotionally and to create a shared sense of purpose or destiny within a community.

Nick Sasaki: Thank you all for your insightful contributions. It’s fascinating to see how myths and shared beliefs have been the cornerstone of human cooperation and societal development. In our next discussion, we’ll explore the Scientific Revolution and how it has transformed our understanding of the world and ourselves. I look forward to continuing this rich conversation with you all.

The Scientific Revolution and the Rise of Modern Science

Nick Sasaki: Welcome back, everyone. We’ve had some illuminating discussions so far, and now we turn our attention to the Scientific Revolution, a period that profoundly transformed human understanding and the world itself. Yuval, could you start us off by explaining how the Scientific Revolution differed from previous revolutions and why it’s so significant in human history?

Yuval Noah Harari: Absolutely, Nick. The Scientific Revolution, which began in the 16th century, marks a major shift in human thought and society. Unlike previous revolutions, which were often about acquiring new technologies or social structures, the Scientific Revolution was about acquiring new knowledge. It introduced a method of systematic experimentation and observation that challenged traditional beliefs and superstitions. The significance of this revolution lies in how it changed humanity’s approach to the world. People began to believe that through science, they could not only understand the natural world but also control and manipulate it. This shift laid the groundwork for modern technology, medicine, and the entire industrial world we live in today.

Nick Sasaki: Jared, from your perspective, how did the Scientific Revolution influence the development of societies and civilizations compared to earlier periods?

Jared Diamond: The Scientific Revolution had a profound impact on the trajectory of human societies. Before this period, most knowledge was rooted in tradition, religion, or the authority of ancient texts. The Scientific Revolution, however, shifted the focus to empirical evidence and the testing of hypotheses. This change in thinking led to dramatic advancements in technology, such as the steam engine and electricity, which in turn fueled the Industrial Revolution and fundamentally altered economies and social structures. It also changed the way societies were organized, with science becoming a central pillar of education and governance. The spread of scientific ideas also contributed to the Enlightenment and the development of democratic ideals.

Nick Sasaki: David, how does the Scientific Revolution fit into the broader context of Big History? What makes it a pivotal threshold in the evolution of human societies?

David Christian: The Scientific Revolution is a key threshold in Big History because it represents a shift from understanding the world based on myth and tradition to one based on empirical evidence and logical reasoning. This was a turning point in the collective learning of humanity—science created a powerful method for accumulating, testing, and refining knowledge, which in turn accelerated technological innovation. It’s also pivotal because it changed humanity’s relationship with the universe. For the first time, humans developed the tools to explore the cosmos, understand the laws of nature, and manipulate their environment in unprecedented ways. This revolution didn’t just change our understanding of the world; it transformed how humans interacted with it.

Nick Sasaki: Steven, you’ve explored how human cognition and language have evolved. How did the Scientific Revolution affect human cognition and the way we think about the world?

Steven Pinker: The Scientific Revolution fundamentally changed human cognition by encouraging a mindset of skepticism and inquiry. Before this period, much of human thought was dominated by authority figures or religious dogma. The revolution introduced a new way of thinking—one that valued questioning, evidence, and systematic investigation. This shift not only advanced our understanding of the natural world but also fostered critical thinking and problem-solving skills that are essential in modern society. It’s also important to note that this revolution was accompanied by the development of new languages of mathematics and science, which provided tools for more precise and abstract thought.

Nick Sasaki: Elizabeth, how has the Scientific Revolution influenced humanity’s relationship with the environment?

Elizabeth Kolbert: The Scientific Revolution significantly altered humanity’s relationship with the environment by providing the knowledge and technology to manipulate nature on a vast scale. On one hand, this led to incredible advances in agriculture, medicine, and industry, which improved living standards for many people. However, it also paved the way for large-scale environmental exploitation and degradation. The idea that humans could control and reshape the natural world led to practices that have resulted in deforestation, pollution, and climate change. The challenge now is to reconcile the benefits of scientific progress with the need to protect and sustain the environment for future generations.

Nick Sasaki: Margaret, the Scientific Revolution also changed the way stories and myths were told. How did this revolution affect literature and cultural narratives?

Margaret Atwood: The Scientific Revolution had a profound impact on literature and cultural narratives by introducing new themes and ideas. It brought the concept of human progress and the idea that through science and reason, humanity could solve its problems and improve the world. This was a departure from earlier narratives that often emphasized fate, divine will, or the limitations of human understanding. In literature, we see the rise of genres like science fiction, which explore the implications of scientific discoveries and technological advancements. It also led to a shift in how people viewed their place in the universe—no longer at the center, but as part of a vast, complex, and knowable cosmos.

Nick Sasaki: Thank you all for your thoughtful perspectives. The Scientific Revolution indeed transformed not only our understanding of the world but also our place within it. As we move forward, our final discussion will explore the potential future of Homo sapiens and the ethical challenges posed by technological advancements. I’m looking forward to continuing this conversation with you all.

Ethical Considerations and Technological Challenges

Nick Sasaki: Welcome back, everyone, to our final discussion on the themes of Sapiens by Yuval Noah Harari. In this session, we’re looking ahead to the future of Homo sapiens, particularly in light of the ethical considerations and challenges posed by technological advancements. Yuval, let’s start with you. How do you see the future of our species unfolding as we continue to develop technologies like biotechnology and artificial intelligence?

Yuval Noah Harari: The future of Homo sapiens is likely to be shaped by the most advanced technologies we are currently developing—biotechnology and artificial intelligence (AI). These technologies have the potential to fundamentally alter what it means to be human. Biotechnology could enable us to engineer our bodies and minds, perhaps even achieving forms of immortality or creating new species entirely. AI, on the other hand, could surpass human intelligence, leading to a world where machines make many of the decisions that currently require human input. These developments raise profound ethical questions: Who gets access to these technologies? How do we ensure they are used responsibly? And what happens if they lead to greater inequality or even the obsolescence of Homo sapiens as we know it?

Nick Sasaki: Jared, considering your work on the risks and benefits of societal development, what do you see as the biggest challenges humanity faces as we move into this new era?

Jared Diamond: One of the biggest challenges is ensuring that the benefits of these technologies are shared equitably across societies. Historically, technological advancements have often exacerbated existing inequalities rather than alleviating them. If we’re not careful, technologies like genetic engineering or AI could create a world where a small elite has access to enhanced abilities or life extension, while the majority are left behind. Another challenge is the environmental impact. The same technologies that have the potential to save lives and improve quality of life could also accelerate environmental degradation if not managed responsibly. Balancing technological progress with ethical considerations and sustainability is crucial.

Nick Sasaki: David, from the Big History perspective, how do these technological advancements fit into the long-term story of humanity? Are we entering a new threshold moment?

David Christian: We are indeed entering what could be considered a new threshold moment in Big History—one that could have consequences as significant as the Cognitive or Agricultural Revolutions. The development of AI and biotechnology could mark the beginning of a post-human future, where Homo sapiens evolve into something quite different from what we are today. This is a moment of profound transformation, where the choices we make will determine the future of life on Earth. It’s not just about technological change, but about how we manage the social, ethical, and environmental implications of these changes. We’re standing at the precipice of a new era, and it’s up to us to decide how we move forward.

Nick Sasaki: Steven, how do you think these technologies will impact human cognition and our understanding of consciousness?

Steven Pinker: Technologies like AI and neuroengineering have the potential to radically alter human cognition and our understanding of consciousness. AI could augment human intelligence, allowing us to process information and solve problems in ways that are currently unimaginable. However, it also raises questions about what it means to be conscious and whether machines could ever possess something akin to human awareness. Biotechnology, meanwhile, might allow us to enhance cognitive functions or alter emotional states, blurring the line between what is naturally human and what is artificially created. These advancements challenge our notions of identity, agency, and the very nature of consciousness itself.

Nick Sasaki: Elizabeth, with your focus on environmental issues, how do you view the intersection of technological advancements and environmental sustainability?

Elizabeth Kolbert: The intersection of technology and the environment is both promising and perilous. On one hand, advancements in technology could provide solutions to some of our most pressing environmental problems, such as climate change, by enabling cleaner energy sources, more efficient resource use, and new ways to mitigate environmental damage. On the other hand, if these technologies are not developed and implemented with sustainability in mind, they could exacerbate environmental degradation and lead to new, unforeseen problems. The key is to ensure that as we push the boundaries of what’s technologically possible, we also remain mindful of our impact on the planet and strive to create a sustainable future.

Nick Sasaki: Margaret, how do you think these future developments will shape the narratives and stories we tell about humanity?

Margaret Atwood: The future we’re heading into will undoubtedly inspire new narratives and stories, many of which will grapple with the ethical and existential questions these technologies pose. As we explore themes of identity, consciousness, and the potential for human enhancement or obsolescence, our stories will reflect our hopes, fears, and moral dilemmas. Science fiction has already been a testing ground for these ideas, and I think we’ll see even more exploration of these themes as the boundaries between fiction and reality blur. These narratives will be crucial in helping us process the changes we’re experiencing and in guiding the ethical considerations we need to address.

Nick Sasaki: Thank you all for this engaging and thought-provoking discussion. The future of Homo sapiens is filled with both extraordinary potential and significant challenges. As we move forward, it’s vital that we continue to reflect on these issues and make informed decisions that will shape the destiny of our species. This concludes our conversation on the key themes of Sapiens. I appreciate all of your insightful contributions and look forward to where these discussions might lead in our collective future.

Short Bios:

Yuval Noah Harari is a historian, philosopher, and bestselling author of Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. His work focuses on broad historical trends and the future of humanity, particularly in the context of technology and artificial intelligence.

Jared Diamond is a renowned geographer, historian, and author of Guns, Germs, and Steel, which won the Pulitzer Prize. His work explores the environmental and societal factors that have shaped human history.

David Christian is a historian and scholar known for pioneering the concept of Big History, which examines history from the Big Bang to the present. He is the author of Maps of Time and co-founder of the Big History Project.

Steven Pinker is a cognitive psychologist, linguist, and author known for his work on language, the human mind, and social progress. His books, such as The Better Angels of Our Nature, explore the evolution of human thought and behavior.

Elizabeth Kolbert is an environmental journalist and author, best known for her Pulitzer Prize-winning book The Sixth Extinction. Her work focuses on the impact of human activities on the environment and the future of the planet.

Margaret Atwood is an acclaimed novelist, poet, and essayist, known for her dystopian and speculative fiction, including The Handmaid’s Tale. Her work often explores themes of power, identity, and societal change.